The Harappan Civilisation was a Bronze Age civilisation that flourished in the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent. Its cities were known for planned streets, baked-brick buildings, drainage systems, craft production and trade. Since its script has not yet been deciphered, historians depend mainly on archaeological evidence to study its people.

For many centuries, the people living in the region did not know that the old bricks and ruins belonged to a civilisation that had flourished thousands of years earlier. During the nineteenth century, some ancient bricks from Harappa were removed and reused in railway construction. This damaged parts of the site.

Alexander Cunningham, the first Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India, visited Harappa in the nineteenth century. He found a seal but did not fully understand its importance. Later excavations revealed that Harappa and other sites belonged to a much older urban civilisation.

Chronology of the Harappan Civilisation

The civilisation developed over a long period. Historians and archaeologists divide it into three broad phases to study the changes in settlements and material culture.

Harappan settlements were spread across parts of present-day Pakistan and north-western India. They were found in river valleys, coastal areas, semi-arid regions and places near sources of raw materials.

The name Indus Valley Civilisation can be misleading because settlements were not limited to the Indus Valley alone. The term Harappan Civilisation is therefore commonly used for the entire cultural area.

The cities of the Mature Harappan phase show careful planning. Streets, houses, drains and public buildings were built according to common practices. This suggests that construction and city management required organisation.

Division of the city

Many Harappan cities were divided into two sections. A raised part is commonly called the Citadel, while the usually larger residential section is called the Lower Town. This arrangement was not exactly the same at every site.

Use of bricks

Harappan builders used mud bricks and baked bricks. Many bricks followed a standard ratio of length, width and height, often expressed as 4:2:1. Similar brick sizes at different sites point to common building practices.

Streets and houses

Streets in many cities followed a planned layout. Some crossed one another at right angles. Houses were often built around courtyards and contained several rooms. Many houses had bathrooms and access to drains. Some also had private wells.

The Great Bath at Mohenjodaro

The Great Bath is one of the best-known structures of the Harappan Civilisation. It was a large rectangular tank built with baked bricks. Its floor and walls were made watertight. Steps led down into the tank from both ends.

The Great Bath was situated in a large complex in the Citadel. Scholars have suggested that it may have been used for ritual bathing. Its exact purpose, however, is not known.

Drainage system

The Harappan drainage system was carefully planned. Smaller drains from houses joined larger drains along the streets. Many drains were made of bricks and covered with slabs. Some had removable covers or inspection points for cleaning.

• Drains carried wastewater away from houses.
• Many drains were covered.
• Smaller drains joined larger street drains.
• Some drains had arrangements for cleaning and inspection.

Agriculture and animal rearing were important activities in Harappan life. Archaeologists study charred grains, seeds, animal bones and tools to understand the food and farming practices of these communities.

Crops grown by the Harappans

The Harappans cultivated wheat and barley. They also grew pulses, sesame, mustard and other crops. Cotton was grown and used for making cloth. Evidence of rice has been found at some sites, though it was not equally common everywhere.

Evidence of agriculture

Charred grains and seeds are important sources of information. At Kalibangan, archaeologists found evidence of a ploughed field. The furrows suggest that the field may have been prepared for growing two crops in rows.

Animal rearing

Harappan people kept cattle, sheep, goats and buffaloes. Animal bones found at different sites help archaeologists study the animals used by these communities.

Water and irrigation

Some settlements depended on rivers and seasonal rainfall. Wells and water storage structures were used at certain sites. Dholavira is especially known for its reservoirs and water management arrangements.

Craft production

Harappan craft workers made beads, pottery, ornaments, metal objects, tools, seals and shell objects. Their work required knowledge of materials and specialised skills.

Bead-making

Beads were made from carnelian, jasper, crystal, quartz, steatite, shell and other materials. Workers shaped, heated, ground and polished stones. They also drilled holes into beads so that they could be strung together.

Carnelian beads were especially valued. Some were heated to produce a deeper red colour. The finished beads were used in necklaces and other ornaments.

Other crafts

Centres of craft production

Chanhudaro was an important centre for bead-making. Nageshwar and Balakot were associated with shell-working. Archaeologists identify craft centres by studying tools, raw materials, unfinished objects and waste pieces.

Raw materials and their sources

Trade and transport

The Harappans obtained many raw materials from distant regions. Bullock carts were probably used for transport over land. River and coastal routes may also have been used to move goods.

Harappan objects and materials have been found outside the main Harappan region. Mesopotamian records mention a place called Meluhha, which many scholars identify with the Harappan region. These references point to contact and exchange between distant communities.

Seals and sealings

Harappan seals were often made of steatite. Many were square or rectangular and carried animal figures and short inscriptions. Common figures include a unicorn-like animal, bull, elephant and rhinoceros.

Seals may have been used to mark goods, identify owners or manage exchange. When a seal was pressed onto soft clay, it produced an impression called a sealing.

Standardised weights

Harappan weights were often made of stone and many were cubical in shape. They followed a system of standard measures. Their use suggests that people followed common methods for measuring goods.

The Harappan script

Harappan inscriptions have been found on seals, tablets, pottery and other objects. Most inscriptions are short. The script has not yet been deciphered.

Differences in houses, buildings, objects and burials suggest that Harappan society was not entirely equal. Some houses were larger than others, and certain graves contained more objects. These differences may point to variations in wealth and social position.

Was there a ruling class?

Large cities, standardised bricks, weights and seals suggest that some form of planning and coordination existed. However, archaeologists have not found clear evidence of large palaces or royal tombs like those found in some other ancient civilisations.

Scholars have suggested different explanations for the political organisation of the Harappans. The exact system of authority is not known.

Burials and beliefs

Burials provide clues about how the dead were treated. At several sites, people were buried in pits. Some graves contained pottery, ornaments and other objects.

These objects may have been connected with beliefs about death or the afterlife. However, archaeologists cannot be certain about the exact beliefs of the Harappans.

Around 1900 BCE, many large Harappan cities began to decline. The use of standardised weights, seals and certain types of pottery became less common. Long-distance trade networks also weakened. Some settlements were abandoned, while people continued to live in other areas.

Possible reasons for the decline

• Changes in the courses of rivers.
• Changes in rainfall and environmental conditions.
• Floods in some areas.
• Weakening of long-distance trade.
• Changes in settlement patterns and local economies.

There is no single explanation that accounts for the decline at every Harappan site. Different settlements may have faced different problems.

Archaeologists study objects and structures left behind by people in the past. They examine where an object was found, what it was made of, how it may have been used and how it relates to other remains.

The problem of interpretation

The same object may have more than one possible use. Archaeologists compare it with similar objects and study the place where it was found before suggesting its purpose. They must also distinguish between what the evidence proves and what is only a possible explanation.

The questions below cover the main themes of the chapter. The answers are written in simple language for revision. They are practice questions based on the chapter, not a claim to reproduce every exercise question word for word.

These are original practice passages based on the themes of the chapter. They are not direct extracts from the NCERT textbook.