Meaning and foundation

The word Vijayanagara means “City of Victory”. It was the name of both a city and an empire. The empire was founded in 1336 by two brothers, Harihara and Bukka.

The empire stretched from the Krishna River in the north to the extreme south of the Indian peninsula. It included people who spoke different languages and followed different religious traditions.

Hampi is another name associated with Vijayanagara. It is derived from Pampadevi, the local mother goddess. The ruins of Vijayanagara are found at modern Hampi in Karnataka.

Ruling dynasties

Four major ruling dynasties are associated with the Vijayanagara Empire.

Krishnadeva Raya

Krishnadeva Raya was one of the most famous rulers of Vijayanagara. He belonged to the Tuluva dynasty. His reign was marked by territorial expansion and political consolidation.

• He brought the Raichur Doab under his control in 1512.
• He defeated Pratap Rudra of the Gajapati dynasty in 1514.
• He defeated the Sultan of Bijapur in 1520.
• He supported the construction of temples and gopurams.
• He founded Nagalapuram, a suburban township named after his mother.
• He composed the Telugu work on statecraft, Amuktamalyada.

The Battle of Talikota (1565)

After the death of Krishnadeva Raya in 1529, his successors faced political difficulties and rebellions by nayakas.

The policies of Rama Raya and the changing relations with the Deccan sultanates led to an alliance against Vijayanagara. In 1565, the combined armies of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar and Golkonda defeated the Vijayanagara forces in the Battle of Talikota, also known as the Battle of Rakshasi-Tangadi.

The victorious armies sacked the capital. The city was abandoned within a few years. The Aravidu rulers shifted their base towards the east, first to Penukonda and later to Chandragiri near Tirupati.

Colin Mackenzie

The ruins at Hampi were brought to attention in 1800 by Colonel Colin Mackenzie. He was an engineer, surveyor and cartographer. He worked for the English East India Company and prepared the first survey map of the site.

His early studies were based on the memories of priests associated with the Virupaksha temple and the shrine of Pampadevi.

From 1836, epigraphists began collecting inscriptions from the temples at Hampi. From 1856, photographs also began recording the monuments.

Sources used by historians

• Oral traditions: Local memories and stories.
• Inscriptions: Records found on temples and monuments.
• Monuments: Temples, palaces, forts and other structures.
• Photographs: Visual records of historical buildings.
• Travellers’ accounts: Descriptions written by foreign visitors.
• Literary works: Written records from the period.

Horse trade

Cavalry played an important role in warfare. Therefore, the import of horses from Arabia and Central Asia was important for the Vijayanagara rulers.

• Arab merchants initially controlled much of the horse trade.
• Local horse traders were called kudirai chettis.
• Portuguese traders entered the scene after 1498.

Markets and trade

The markets of Vijayanagara were famous for spices, textiles, precious stones and jewellery. Trade was a sign of wealth and prosperity. Revenue from trade also helped the development of the state.

Who were the Nayakas?

Nayakas were military chiefs in the Vijayanagara Empire. They controlled forts, territories and armed supporters. Many nayakas spoke Telugu or Kannada.

They often moved from one place to another. They were sometimes accompanied by peasants looking for fertile land to settle. Although many served the king, some rebelled and faced military action.

The Amara-Nayaka System

The amara-nayaka system was an important political and military arrangement of Vijayanagara. Military commanders received territories from the king.

Major duties of amara-nayakas

• Collecting taxes from peasants, craftsmen and traders.
• Keeping part of the revenue for personal use.
• Maintaining a fixed number of horses and elephants.
• Supporting temples and irrigation works.
• Sending annual tribute to the king.
• Appearing at the royal court with gifts.

The king maintained control by transferring amara-nayakas from one territory to another. Over time, some of them established independent kingdoms. This weakened the Vijayanagara Empire.

Water management

Vijayanagara was located in a natural basin formed by the Tungabhadra River. Large granite hills surrounded the city. Streams flowed from these rocky hills towards the river.

Since the region was relatively dry, the rulers developed an extensive water storage system.

Important waterworks

Fortifications

Vijayanagara had a remarkable system of fortifications. Abdur Razzaq, who visited the region in the fifteenth century, described seven lines of forts.

The fortifications protected the city, agricultural land and forests. The outermost wall connected the surrounding hills. The walls were built using wedge-shaped stone blocks. No mortar or cementing agent was used.

Why were agricultural fields included within the fort?

During a siege, an enemy army could cut off food supplies and force the defenders to surrender. Sieges could continue for months or even years. By protecting agricultural fields and granaries, the rulers ensured a supply of food during such attacks.

The Urban Core

The urban core contained roads, houses, markets and other buildings. Archaeologists have found fine Chinese porcelain in some areas, suggesting that wealthy traders may have lived there.

Wells, rainwater tanks and temple tanks of smaller shrines may have supplied water to ordinary residents.

The Royal Centre

The royal centre was located in the south-western part of the settlement. It contained important temples, palaces and royal buildings.

About thirty buildings have been identified as palaces. The temples were generally built using masonry, while many secular buildings used perishable materials.

The Audience Hall

The Audience Hall was a high platform with slots for wooden pillars placed at regular intervals. A staircase led to the second floor.

The Mahanavami Dibba

The Mahanavami Dibba was a massive platform rising about 40 feet from a base of approximately 11,000 square feet. Evidence suggests that it supported a wooden structure. Its base was decorated with relief carvings.

It was associated with important royal ceremonies, particularly the Mahanavami festival.

Mahanavami literally means “the great ninth day”. It was a ten-day festival celebrated during September and October. It was known by different names in different parts of India, such as Dussehra, Durga Puja and Navaratri.

Major ceremonies

• Worship of religious images.
• Worship of the state horse.
• Sacrifice of buffaloes and other animals.
• Dances and wrestling matches.
• Processions of decorated horses, elephants and chariots.
• Military displays and presentations before the king.
• Gifts and tribute presented by nayakas.

Religious traditions

Local traditions connected the hills around Vijayanagara with the monkey kingdom of Vali and Sugriva mentioned in the Ramayana.

Other traditions associated Pampadevi, the local mother goddess, with the guardian deity Virupaksha, recognised as a form of Shiva.

Temples and royal authority

Vijayanagara rulers encouraged temple construction because it helped establish a divine association between the king and the deity.

The rulers claimed to rule on behalf of Virupaksha. Royal orders were signed “Shri Virupaksha”, usually in the Kannada script.

The rulers also used the title “Hindu Suratrana”, a Sanskritised form of the Arabic term Sultan.

Important architectural features

1. Gopurams

These were large temple gateways. The rayas gopurams were often much taller than the towers above the central shrines. They displayed the power and resources of the rulers.

2. Mandapas

Mandapas were pillared halls or pavilions inside temple complexes. They were used for religious and cultural activities.

3. Pillared Corridors

Long pillared corridors often surrounded the shrines within the temple complex.

4. Temple Halls

These halls were used for music, dance, drama, religious celebrations and ceremonies connected with the deities.

Virupaksha Temple

The Virupaksha temple was built over several centuries. Inscriptions suggest that the shrine dates back to the ninth or tenth centuries.

Krishnadeva Raya built an elaborate hall in front of the main shrine on the occasion of his coronation. He also built its eastern gopuram.

Vitthala Temple

The principal deity of this temple was Vitthala, a form of Vishnu generally worshipped in Maharashtra.

The temple is known for its several halls and a unique shrine designed as a chariot.

Chariot streets extended from the temple gopuram. They were paved with stone slabs and lined with pillared pavilions where merchants set up shops.

What should you revise?

• Foundation of Vijayanagara and its founders.
• Four ruling dynasties and Krishnadeva Raya.
• Discovery of Hampi and sources of history.
• Horse trade and the importance of markets.
• Nayakas and the amara-nayaka system.
• Kamalapuram Tank and Hiriya Canal.
• Fortifications and protection of agricultural land.
• Urban core and royal centre.
• Audience Hall and Mahanavami Dibba.
• Mahanavami festival.
• Virupaksha and Vitthala temples.
• Battle of Talikota and decline of the empire.